The Mauryan Empire

THE FIRST EMPIRE

We have read about how small states, or janapadas, came to be formed in different parts of the subcontinent and eventually conquered neighbouring states to form larger states, or mahajanapadas. As more territories were conquered, the mahajanapadas gave way to empires. The empires favoured dynastic rule, i.e., rulers from the same family succeeded each other to the throne.

 

The first empire recorded in India's history is the Mauryan Empire. Established in the 4th century BC, this vast empire stretched from Magadha in the east, Kandahar in the west, to Mysore in the south.

Empires vs kingdoms

Empires comprise a number of kingdoms or states governed by a single ruler. They are much larger than kingdoms. The rulers of empires are known as emperors. The Mauryas established control over large parts of the subcontinent by capturing several kingdoms and states, the most important being Magadha. As the territory under Maurya control was much larger than erstwhile kingdoms, it came to be called an empire.

 

Apart from size, empires were quite different from kingdoms because -

• Their emperors had to maintain a much larger army in order to protect their territories. The Mauryas perhaps controlled the largest army among rulers of ancient India. than
• The emperors required more resources kings of kingdoms to run the empire.
• They also had to appoint a larger number of officials to governvern the empire and perform administrative tasks such as collection of taxes and revenues.

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (321 BC 297 BC)

In 327 BC, Alexander, the king of the Greek kingdom of Macedonia, invaded India from the northwest. He received no opposition from Ambhi, the king of Gandhara, who surrendered to him without fighting. But King Porus of Paurava (Punjab) chose to fight him and defend his kingdom. Though he fought courageously, Porus was defeated and taken prisoner by Alexander's army. He was later released and his kingdom was restored to him, but only after he accepted Alexander's lordship.

 

Over the next two years, Alexander managed to capture many important cities. But he was forced to return home after his soldiers refused to march further into the subcontinent. Alexander died on his way back to Greece. At that time he was 33 years old.

 

Young Chandragupta Maurya took advantage of the confusion in Punjab after Alexander's departure, to seize power. He was helped in this task by his wise mentor and advisor Chanakya, also known as Kautilya. By 321 BC, Chandragupta had added Magadha to his empire after defeating the last Nanda king Dhana Nanda. Chandragupta then turned his attention to the northwest of India, where one of Alexander's generals, Seleucus Nicator, controlled territories conquered earlier by the Greeks. In 305 BC, Chandragupta defeated Seleucus and signed a peace treaty with him. He is also believed to have married Seleucus' daughter.

 

Alexander and Porus King Porus and Alexander the Great fought the battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) river in 326 BC. Porus had chosen to fight Alexander to defend his kingdom, Paurava, and its people. Both fought fiercely and their armies suffered heavy casualties. Alexander managed to defeat Porus. During a meeting with the fallen king, Alexander reportedly asked him, 'How would you like to be treated?' Porus famously replied, 'As befits a king.   Alexander was impressed by the brave and admirable response of King Porus, who had suffered many arrow wounds and whose sons had chosen to die in battle rather than surrender. So he returned Paurava back to Porus. Later, King Porus reportedly helped Alexander in his conquests further east in India. For his support, Alexander gave Porus dominion over the territories he had conquered, as far as the Hyphasis (Beas) river.

 

Literary sources

The history of Chandragupta and his empire is mentioned in the book Indika written by Megasthenes, Nicator's ambassador to Chandragupta. He came to Chandragupta's court in 302 BC and stayed with him for several years. Kautilya's Arthashastra also provides valuable information about the rule of Chandragupta. The Puranas, Jain and Buddhist literature, also throw light on Chandragupta's life and empire. The drama Mudrarakshasa, written by Vishakhadutta, describes how Chandragupta came to power. Besides texts, several punch-marked coins and objects from the period have been found which shed light on the Maurya rule.

 

Chanakya (322 BC-297 BC)

Chanakya or Kautilya's real name was Vishnugupta. He was guide, advisor, and mentor to Chandragupta Maurya. It is said that the Nanda kings had insulted Kautilya, and so he had vowed on destroying them. He had his revenge when Chandragupta defeated the last of the Nanda kings, Dhana Nanda, and took control of Magadha. Chanakya is the author of Arthashastra, which is a valuable source of information about life, society, and administration under the Mauryas.

 

How Chandragupta met Chanakya According to some accounts, Chanakya was teaching at Takshashila University at the time of Alexander's invasion. One day, he came across Chandragupta playing with his friends and was struck by his sense of justice. Chandragupta was playing a king while one of his friends was playing a criminal who had been brought before him for judgment, Chanakya noticed Chandragupta's kindness and willingness to help others and was so impressed he met his mother to know more about him.   He found out that Chandragupta's father had been a servant of King Nand, the then ruler of Magadha, and he had been sent to prison for some mistake. Chanakya advised her to take her son to the king and request for his help.in educating Chandragupta. So Chandragupta was presented at the court. The king gave him a problem to solve and was so amazed by his solution that he asked his minister to enrol Chandragupta at the best university of the time, the Vishvavidhyalaya of Taxila.

BINDUSARA (297 BC-273 BC)

After ruling for 26 years, Chandragupta adopted Jainism and became a monk. His son, Bindusara, took over the Maurya throne in 297 BC. Bindusara was also known as 'Amitraghata', meaning 'slayer of foes', possibly on account of his many conquests. Ambassadors from countries as far as Syria and Egypt were part of Bindusara's court. After his death, his son Ashoka took over the throne.

 

Bindusara According to legend, Chanakya, who served as prime minister during Chandragupta's rule, used to add small doses of poison in Chandragupta's food so his body would get used to the venom. The aim was to increase the king's resistance so that enemies would not be able to poison him. One day, however, Chandragupta's queen, Durdha, ate some of his food and died. She was pregnant at the time. Chanakya decided to cut open her belly and save the baby. When he pulled the baby boy out, he had a drop (bindu in Sanskrit) of poisoned blood on his head. And so, he named the boy, Bindusara.

 

ASHOKA, THE GREAT (272/268 BC-231 BC)

Ashoka was born in 302 BC. During his father Bindusara's reign, he was made the governor of Taxila and Ujjain. He ascended the Mauryan throne in 272 BC. However, his coronation took place much later in 268 BC. Ashoka proved to be the most famous of all Emperor Ashoka Mauryan rulers. His contribution to India's heritage is immense. In fact, Ashoka is counted among the greatest rulers India has ever had.

Battle of Kalinga

When Ashoka took over the throne, Kalinga (present Odisha) was the only state in the east not under the domain of the Mauryan Empire. He attacked the state with full force. In the fierce battle that followed, thousands of men were killed, wounded, or taken prisoners. The suffering caused to the people gave Ashoka much grief. He was filled with remorse and abandoned the policy of conquest through war. After the Battle of Kalinga, he embraced Buddhism, adopted the policy of ahimsa or non-violence, and came to be known as devanampriya, or the beloved of the gods.

 

Ashoka is known as a unique ruler perhaps because he is the only king in history to have given up fighting wars after a victory. He is also the first emperor to have reached out to his people by inscribing his messages on rocks and pillars.

 

 

Ashoka's dhamma

The word dhamma is a Prakrit of involve not term which means 'religious responsibility Ashoka's dhamma did worship of Gods or performance of rituals and sacrifices. Its broad objective was to spread the ideals of tolerance and non-violence, or ahimsa) It ordained that people obey their parents, be tolerant of other religious and social groups, (be generous with Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, respect each other, show mercy on slaves and servants, speak the truth, be charitable, and lead virtuous lives Ashoka also emphasised compassion towards animals. He forbade killing of certain birds and completely-prohibited the slaughter of animals in the capital. He forbade the cooking of meat in his own kitchen, too.

 

Ashoka led by example. He undertook many projects under his new policy of dhamma. He planted trees, built roads and rest houses for people, and even arranged for medical assistance for humans as well as animals. This was because he set a very high ideal of kingship for himself. He considered his subjects as his children and felt it was his duty to teach them and look after them like a father.

Spread of dhamma

Ashoka took the following steps to propagate Buddhism:

• Ashoka is known to have built many stupas and monasteries in the Buddhis tradition. He even gave large grants to the monasteries.
• He tried to propagate his dhamma through edicts (official orders or instructions) inscribed on rocks and pillars. He even appointed officials to read out his inscriptions to people, if they wished. The inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script.
• He appointed officers known as dhamma mahamattas who travelled from place to place and spread his message.
• He sent missionaries to other countries, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, Sri Lanka, Burma, Nepal, Tibet, China, and Japan to spread the message of dhamma.
• The Third Buddhist Council was held in Pataliputra in 252 BC during Ashoka's rule.
• He is believed to have sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism there.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The Mauryas made a significant contribution to Indian art and architecture. The stupa was the most important element of the Mauryan architecture. Its design was derived from the ancient funeral mounds made of earth and brick that preserved the remains of monks. The stupa at Sanchi (near Bhopal) also known as the Great Stupa, is the most famous of the structures.

 

Ashoka also got a number of pillars constructed during his lifetime. The pillars usually had a capital with beautifully carved animal figures. The famous pillar at Sarnath has a bell-shaped capital with four lions sitting back to back, a design featured in our national emblem and the seal of our government. At the base of the capital is an engraving of a wheel, which stands for the laws of the Buddha. This wheel features in our national flag. 

Another notable pillar is the one at Rampurva, which has a stunning bull-shaped capital.

According to Greek ambassador, Megasthenese, the Mauryan palace at Pataliputra was quite splendid. Fragments of stone pillars and stumps indicate the existence of an 80-pillared hall at Kumrahar on the outskirts of modern Patna.

 

ADMINISTRATION

The Mauryan administration functioned at four levels-central, provincial, district, and village.

 

Central administration

The king held the seat of power and was the absolute authority. He was assisted by a council of ministers known as a mantri parishad and many other officials.

 

Provincial administration

There were four provincial capitals under the Mauryan Empire: Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The king's representative in these provinces was known as kumara. He was assisted in his duties by mahamatyas and a council of ministers.

 

District administration

Each province was further divided into several districts. Pradeshta, the head of the district, was assisted by yuktas and rajukas. These officials collected revenue, valued land, and helped keep law and order.

 

Village administration

Each district consisted of a group of villages. A village headman took care of each village with the help of a council. Their function was to help maintain land records, mark village boundaries, collect taxes, etc.

PATALIPUTRA

Pataliputra emerged as an important city and the capital of the Mauryan Empire. Megasthenes described Pataliputra as a fortified city with many towers and gates, and two to three-storey houses made of mud or wood. The king's palace was also made of wood with carvings of stone.

 

The city was administered by a committee of 30 members. The committee was divided into six groups each including five members. Members of different groups had different responsibilities, some looked after trade and industry, some inspected manufactured goods, some looked after crafts, some looked after foreigners, while others looked into collection of taxes. Some members even kept a record of births and deaths. The committee was also responsible for providing civic amenities, such as hospitals, roads, parks, and temples. It also looked after health and sanitation issues.

 

THE ARMY

The Mauryas had a large army comprising horsemen (cavalry) and foot soldiers (infantry). They also had a number of elephants in the army. Besides this, the Mauryas had a well-developed network of royal spies who kept the king informed about everything happening within as well as outside the kingdom.

 

REVENUE SYSTEM

Managing the Maurya Empire required a large army and administrative network. This required a huge amount of resources, which were often collected in the form of taxes and tributes. Tributes were usually gifts made by people, more or less at their will. Unlike taxes, they were not collected regularly.

 

Land revenue was the main source of income for the empire. Farmers had to give a part of their produce as tax, usually fixed at one-fourth or one- sixth of the total produce. Tax was also imposed on water. provided for irrigation. Besides farmers, taxes were collected from artisans, miners, and traders. The Mauryans also collected tolls along land and water routes in the areas under their control. The money collected through taxes was primarily spent on army maintenance, charities, salaries of royal officials, maintenance of roads hospitals, etc.

 

SOCIETY

In the Arthashastra, Chanakya mentions four main castes comprising the society at the time Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. He assigned the highest status to the Brahmanas There are also references to 'untouchables' and areas inhabited by hunter-gatherers.

 

TRADE AND OCCUPATIONS

The major occupations followed during the Mauryan rule were farming, cattle rearing, and crafts such as pottery and carpentry. Trade seems to have flourished during the period. The major centres of trade were Ujjain, Pataliputra, Taxila, and Broach. Apart from domestic trade within the subcontinent there are also references of trade with other countries such as China, Sri Lanka, Egypt, and Rome.

The use of silver punchmarked coins seems to have been prevalent in the Maurya Empire. Many coins dating back to the period have been discovered in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

 

END OF THE MAURYAS

Ashoka died in 231 BC. After his death, the Maurya Empire gradually disintegrated. Several reasons have been cited for the fall of the Mauryas:

 

Weak successors: Ashoka's successors were weak rulers who were unable to bear the responsibility of controlling such a large empire. They could not stop the forces of disintegration, which got to work soon after the death of Ashoka.

 

Anti-brahmana policies: Some historians say Ashoka's criticism of rituals and sacrifices turned Brahmanas against him and the Maurya Empire.

 

Financial crisis: The enormous expenditure on the army, administrative officials, and large grants made to Buddhist monks by Ashoka gradually emptied the royal treasury. This may have weakened the empire.

 

Exercise

 

1. What was the first recorded empire in India's history?

a) Gupta Empire

b) Mauryan Empire

c) Mughal Empire

d) Chola Empire

Answer: b) Mauryan Empire

 

2. In which century was the Mauryan Empire established?

a) 6th century BC

b) 3rd century BC

c) 4th century BC

d) 2nd century BC

Answer: c) 4th century BC

 

3. What is the key difference between an empire and a kingdom?

a) Empires are smaller than kingdoms

b) Empires consist of multiple kingdoms or states ruled by a single ruler

c) Kingdoms require a larger army than empires

d) Kingdoms have more resources than empires

Answer: b) Empires consist of multiple kingdoms or states ruled by a single ruler

 

4. What were the rulers of empires called?

a) Kings

b) Sultans

c) Emperors

d) Princes

Answer: c) Emperors

 

5. Which region was the most important to the Mauryas in establishing their empire?

a) Magadha

b) Mysore

c) Kandahar

d) Kashmir

Answer: a) Magadha

 

6. Why did emperors of empires need a larger army compared to kings of kingdoms?

a) To conquer new territories

b) To govern more efficiently

c) To protect larger territories

d) To collect taxes

Answer: c) To protect larger territories

 

7. What additional resources did emperors of empires require compared to kings of kingdoms?

a) Smaller territories to manage

b) Fewer taxes

c) More resources to run the empire and maintain armies

d) Lesser officials

Answer: c) More resources to run the empire and maintain armies

 

8. What was one of the key responsibilities of officials appointed by emperors in empires?

a) Conquering new territories

b) Maintaining religious order

c) Governing the empire and collecting taxes

d) Leading armies into battle

Answer: c) Governing the empire and collecting taxes

 

9.Who was Alexander's primary opponent in India during his invasion in 327 BC?

a) Ambhi

b) Chandragupta Maurya

c) Porus

d) Dhana Nanda

Answer: c) Porus

 

10. How did King Ambhi of Gandhara respond to Alexander’s invasion?

a) He fought bravely

b) He formed an alliance with Porus

c) He surrendered without fighting

d) He fled the kingdom

Answer: c) He surrendered without fighting

 

11. What did Alexander do after defeating King Porus?

a) He killed Porus

b) He made Porus his general

c) He restored Porus' kingdom after gaining his loyalty

d) He exiled Porus to Greece

Answer: c) He restored Porus' kingdom after gaining his loyalty

 

12. What was the reason Alexander had to return to Greece after his campaigns in India?

a) His army refused to march further

b) He was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya

c) He ran out of resources

d) He received a peace offer from Indian kings

Answer: a) His army refused to march further

 

13. Who helped Chandragupta Maurya seize power after Alexander's departure?

a) Dhana Nanda

b) Seleucus Nicator

c) Chanakya (Kautilya)

d) Ambhi

Answer: c) Chanakya (Kautilya)

 

14. In which year did Chandragupta Maurya defeat the last Nanda king, Dhana Nanda, and establish his empire?

a) 326 BC

b) 321 BC

c) 305 BC

d) 297 BC

Answer: b) 321 BC

 

15.What was the outcome of Chandragupta Maurya's battle with Seleucus Nicator in 305 BC?

a) Seleucus defeated Chandragupta

b) Chandragupta signed a peace treaty after defeating Seleucus

c) Seleucus expanded his territory into India

d) They both avoided war

Answer: b) Chandragupta signed a peace treaty after defeating Seleucus

 

16. Which river marked the extent of the territory that Porus ruled after being restored by Alexander?

a) Ganga

b) Jhelum

c) Beas

d) Yamuna

Answer: c) Beas

 

17. Which literary source, written by Megasthenes, provides information about Chandragupta Maurya and his empire?

a) Arthashastra

b) Indika

c) Mudrarakshasa

d) Puranas

Answer: b) Indika

 

18. Who was the author of Arthashastra, an important text about life, society, and administration under the Mauryas?

a) Megasthenes

b) Chanakya

c) Vishakhadutta

d) Dhana Nanda

Answer: b) Chanakya

 

19. What is Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadutta primarily about?

a) The life of King Porus

b) The defeat of Alexander by Chandragupta

c) How Chandragupta Maurya came to power

d) The teachings of Chanakya

Answer: c) How Chandragupta Maurya came to power

 

20. Who insulted Chanakya, leading him to vow revenge and help Chandragupta take control of Magadha?

a) Alexander

b) Dhana Nanda

c) Bindusara

d) Ambhi

Answer: b) Dhana Nanda

 

21. What was the meaning of the title "Amitraghata," given to Bindusara?

a) Slayer of foes

b) Protector of the empire

c) Warrior king

d) Father of Ashoka

Answer: a) Slayer of foes

 

22. What unusual event is said to have occurred when Bindusara was born, according to legend?

a) He was born during a battle

b) He was poisoned at birth

c) He was born with a mark of poison on his head

d) He was named after the king of Syria

Answer: c) He was born with a mark of poison on his head

 

23. Which foreign rulers or ambassadors were part of Bindusara's court?

a) Ambhi of Gandhara and Porus

b) Ambassadors from Syria and Egypt

c) Alexander’s generals

d) Seleucus Nicator and Porus

Answer: b) Ambassadors from Syria and Egypt

 

24. In which year did Ashoka ascend the Mauryan throne?

a) 272 BC

b) 268 BC

c) 321 BC

d) 297 BC

Answer: a) 272 BC

 

25. Which battle led to Ashoka's transformation and adoption of Buddhism?

a) Battle of Hydaspes

b) Battle of Taxila

c) Battle of Kalinga

d) Battle of Pataliputra

Answer: c) Battle of Kalinga

 

26. What is the meaning of the title Devanampriya that Ashoka is known by?

a) Protector of Dharma

b) Beloved of the Gods

c) Emperor of Kings

d) Slayer of Enemies

Answer: b) Beloved of the Gods

 

27. What was Ashoka's concept of dhamma primarily focused on?

a) Ritual worship of gods

b) Military conquests

c) Tolerance and non-violence

d) Economic development

Answer: c) Tolerance and non-violence

 

28. Who were Ashoka’s son and daughter, sent to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism?

a) Mahendra and Sanghamitra

b) Chandragupta and Durdhara

c) Bindusara and Dhana Nanda

d) Seleucus and Ambhi

Answer: a) Mahendra and Sanghamitra

 

29. What is the Great Stupa, built during Ashoka’s reign, known for?

a) Its depiction of battles

b) Its bell-shaped capital

c) Preserving the remains of Buddhist monks

d) Being built entirely of stone

Answer: c) Preserving the remains of Buddhist monks

 

30. Which famous pillar constructed by Ashoka is depicted in India's national emblem?

a) The pillar at Sanchi

b) The pillar at Rampurva

c) The pillar at Sarnath

d) The pillar at Kumrahar

Answer: c) The pillar at Sarnath

 

31. What does the wheel engraved at the base of the capital on Ashoka’s Sarnath pillar symbolize?

a) The reign of the Mauryan Empire

b) The laws of the Buddha

c) The strength of the empire

d) The seasons of life

Answer: b) The laws of the Buddha

 

32. What was the main source of income for the Mauryan Empire?

a) Trade with foreign countries

b) Tax on imports and exports

c) Land revenue

d) Tribute from conquered states

Answer: c) Land revenue

 

33. What was the role of the committee of 30 members in Pataliputra?

a) Supervising military training

b) Collecting tributes from vassal states

c) Administering civic amenities and maintaining trade

d) Overseeing foreign diplomatic relations

Answer: c) Administering civic amenities and maintaining trade

 

34. What was the purpose of tolls collected during the Mauryan period?

a) They were a tax on religious activities.

b) They were a source of revenue collected from foreign traders only.

c) They were used to fund Ashoka's religious missions.

d) They were collected on land and water routes to control trade.

Answer: d) They were collected on land and water routes to control trade.

 

35. What was the main currency used during the Mauryan Empire?

a) Gold coins

b) Barter system

c) Silver punch-marked coins

d) Copper coins

Answer: c) Silver punch-marked coins

 

36. What was a key reason for the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire after Ashoka’s death?

a) The empire was invaded by foreign forces.

b) Ashoka's successors were weak rulers.

c) Trade routes were blocked by neighboring kingdoms.

d) Ashoka's successors embraced Jainism, which caused dissent.

Answer: b) Ashoka's successors were weak rulers.

 

37.What led to financial difficulties towards the end of the Maurya Empire?

a) Loss of control over major trade routes

b) High military and administrative expenditure

c) Overreliance on foreign imports

d) Inability to collect taxes from the provinces

Answer: b) High military and administrative expenditure

 

38. According to Chanakya’s Arthashastra, which caste was assigned the highest status in Mauryan society?

a) Kshatriyas

b) Vaishyas

c) Brahmanas

d) Shudras

Answer: c) Brahmanas

 

 

39. In which year did Chandragupta Maurya overthrow the last Nanda ruler, Dhana Nanda, to establish the Maurya Empire?

A) 327 BC

B) 321 BC

C) 305 BC

D) 268 BC

Answer: B) 321 BC

 

Explanation:Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the last Nanda ruler, Dhana Nanda, in 321 BC. This event marked the establishment of the Maurya Empire, one of the largest empires in ancient India. Chandragupta was assisted by his mentor and advisor Chanakya, also known as Kautilya.

 

40. Question: Who were the Dhamma Mahamatta in Ashoka's reign?

A) Military Generals

B) Provincial Governors

C) Officers appointed to spread Ashoka's dhamma

D) Tax Collectors

Answer: C) Officers appointed to spread Ashoka's dhamma

 

Explanation:The Dhamma Mahamatta were officers appointed by Emperor Ashoka to spread his message of dhamma (moral law or righteousness). They were responsible for educating the people about non-violence, respect for others, and tolerance, in line with Ashoka's Buddhist-inspired principles.