SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN NORTH INDIA (AD 700 - AD 1200)

 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN NORTH INDIA (AD 700 - AD 1200)

Between the 8th and the 12th centuries AD, Indian society continued to follow the Vedic practice of dividing people into varnas or castes on the basis of birth. But the varna system had now become more complex and rigid. A number of new jatis or sub-castes had emerged within the four varnas, and people were now ranked on the basis of their backgrounds and the work they did. The status of the jatis was not fixed, but varied from place to place. Most rulers accepted this caste-based division of society.

Among the different social groups, the Brahmanas enjoyed a high status. They were highly respected for their knowledge of Sanskrit and enjoyed the patronage of rulers. They composed prashastis and at times helped in the administration of a state or kingdom. Among the Kshatriyas, the Rajputs emerged as an important social group with different Rajput clans establishing powerful kingdoms. They were attributed the qualities of extreme bravery and loyalty and enjoyed a high status in society. Most Vaishyas had given up agriculture to take up trade and commercial activities. The Shudras were assigned a low status in society. They usually worked on other people's farms or took up arts and crafts.

 

Varna system Under the ancient varna system, society was divided into four groups - Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. The Brahmanas enjoyed the highest status in society. They were expected to learn and impart the teachings of the Vedas. They were also given the responsibility of performing rituals and sacrifices for which they often received gifts in return. The Kshatriyas were placed next in terms of importance. They were assigned the task of fighting battles and providing protection to the people. After the Kshatriyas came the Vaishyas (farmers, herders, and traders). The Shudras formed the lowest rung of the society. Unlike Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, they could not perform any rituals or learn the Vedas.

 

Condition of women

Rajput women enjoyed respect and freedom in society. The practice of swayamvara gave them some choice in selecting their husbands. There was no purdah system. Some women were granted access to education. Many participated in warfare along with men. When their men were defeated or killed by invaders, the women burnt themselves alive to save their honour. This practice was called jauhar. The practice of sati was also common during this period. Sati involved the immolation of women on the funeral pyres of their husbands. Compared to women from the ruling class, the condition of common women was quite poor. They were mainly confined to their homes and were financially dependent on their husbands, in-laws, and sons. Child marriages and female infanticides were common. Widows were not. allowed to marry again.

 

When Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked Chittor in 1567 AD, its ruler Rana Udai Singh fled the city, leaving Jaimal Rathore and Patta Sisodiya to defend the fort. They fought bravely and managed to keep the Mughals from taking over the fort. But the tide turned when Jaimal suffered a fatal shot from Akbar's gun. Although sure of defeat, the Rajputs troops rode out to battle the Mughals. The women performed jauhar. When Akbar entered Chittor, he was greeted by dead bodies.

 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN SOUTH INDIA (AD 700-AD 1200)

The king and the royals, who belonged to the Kshatriya class, enjoyed the highest status in south Indian society, especially under Chola rule. Brahmanas enjoyed a lot of respect and prosperity. They were often given land grants or brahmadeya by rulers. Traders and artisans enjoyed a privileged status. There were many prosperous merchant guilds which conducted a flourishing trade within India and with other countries. The Shudras were burdened with heavy taxes, forced labour, and social discrimination. The Shudras were even denied access to temples and wells.

 

Condition of women

Women seem to have enjoyed a respectable status in society. They are said to have received education in different subjects. They also had the right to inherit property. Some inscriptions even mention villages headed by women.

 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD

The establishment of Muslim rule and the interaction between Hindus and Muslims left its impact on the society, religion, and culture during the period. Initially hostile towards each other, Hindus and Muslims gradually became tolerant of each other and began to influence each other in many ways. Many Hindus converted to Islam-some were attracted by the teachings of Islam which did not believe in caste-based distinctions in society, others wanted to escape taxes such as jaziya and the harsh treatment of non-Muslims by rulers. The converts continued to follow Hindu practices. As a result, many Hindu practices found their way into Muslim society. The Muslims brought the purdah system (veiling of women) with them, which was eventually adopted by the Hindus.

 

As a reaction to Islam, the Hindu caste system became even more rigid. The authors of Smritis laid down stricter rules to save Hindus from the onslaught of Islam. There were four main social groups in society during the Sultanate period: the aristocracy, the priests, the townspeople (merchants, traders, artisans, etc.), and the rural peasants. Of these classes, the aristocracy enjoyed the most power in society. It was the ruling class and included the sultan, the rajas, the nobles, and the landlords.

 

Condition of women

The condition of women suffered during the rule of the Sultans. They had to follow the purdah system and their movements were quite restricted. Married off at an early age, they were completely dependent on their husbands and male relatives.

 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD

The Mughal policy of religious tolerance especially under Akbar, helped bring Hindus and Muslims closer. Many Hindus even began to imitate the dress and habits of the Muslim elite. The society was divided into three main groups during the Mughal period: the upper class comprising the emperor, the nobles, and the mansabdars, the middle class comprising merchants, traders, government officials, etc., and the lower class comprising farmers, artisans, labourers, slaves, etc.

 

The upper classes enjoyed a number of privileges and lived a life full of luxury. The emperor held the highest position in society. Under him were nobles, mainly Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, and some Rajputs. They were paid high salaries in keeping with their extravagant lifestyles. The middle classes lived simple lives. The lower classes were an oppressed lot. They were quite poor and had to work hard to make their ends meet. The caste system continued to be quite rigid and complex.

 

Condition of women

During the Mughal period, women were given a lower status than men. They were completely dependent on male relatives. Social practices such as the purdah system, polygamy, sati, and female infanticide also weakened the position of women in society.

 

CHANGES IN CASTE STRUCTURE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

The political, religious, social and economic developments in medieval India led to the rise of many new jatis or sub-castes within the varnas. As the economy developed and the needs of the society grew, the demand for people with specific skills rose. Communities of artisans who did specialised work, such as carpenters, weavers, potters, barbers, masons, etc., began to be recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas. From a professional class of scribes and secretaries, Kayasthas emerged as a separate caste. They included both Brahmanas and Shudras. New sub-castes even emerged among the Brahmanas. Besides Jains and Buddhists, foreigners who came to invade the subcontinent or settled down here were also included within the caste system as new sub-groups. Gradually, a new social order emerged wherein society came to be organised on the basis of jatis rather than varnas. The jatis or sub-castes had their own rules and customs which were enforced by their leaders and elders. Villages usually had people from several jatis living in them. Each village had its own rules which all people, irrespective of their jatis, had to follow.

 

We have seen how in the 11h and the 12" centuries AD, a number of Rajputs clans rose to prominence and established powerful kingdoms. They claimed as descent from the Huns, Chalukyas, etc., and formed a separate group under the Kshatriya caste. Some of the clans had been tribes earlier, but eventually came to be regarded as Rajputs. The rise of the Rajput clans set an example for those groups which did not follow the caste system. These were tribals or adivasis. With the support of Brahmanas, many tribal communities became a part of the caste system during the medieval period. However, most of the communities were assigned lower jatis. A select few were able to join the ruling class. Some tribal societies such as those in Sindh and Punjab continued to function outside the caste system. Many of them had adopted Islam and refused to follow the social order laid down by Brahmanas. Let us find out more about tribal societies.

 

 

TRIBAL SOCIETIES

During the medieval period, there were primarily two kinds of societies - caste-based societies and tribal societies. Caste-based societies followed the caste system, which divided people into groups as per rules prescribed by the Brahmanas. Tribal societies were those which did not follow the social rules and rituals laid down by the Brahmanas. They had their own rules and customs. These communities did not have clear-cut social divisions like other caste-based societies, instead they were bound by bonds of kinship. These tribes were usually divided into clans, or families which claimed descent from a common ancestor. Each clan had its own chief. Tribal societies were usually found in places that were difficult to access, such as forests, deserts, and hilly areas. As a result, they managed to preserve their freedom and maintain their own distinct culture.

 

Historical sources

As tribal societies did not keep written records, not much is known about them. They, however, did have a rich oral tradition, which was passed on from one generation to another. Many have managed to preserve their customs over the years. All this gives historians an idea about their rich past.

Occupation

Tribal societies mainly depended on agriculture for their livelihood. They usually owned land jointly and divided it among the different members of the tribe for cultivation. Most of them practised shifting agriculture, also known as jhoom cultivation. They cleared forests by cutting and burning the vegetation. The ash of the burnt vegetation acted as manure and made the soil fertile. The cleared patch of land was cultivated for a few years. When the soil started losing its fertility, the tribals moved to a new location. Besides agriculture, tribals also hunted animals and gathered fruits for food. Many tribes reared animals and jointly controlled pastures in the area they lived.

 

Nomadic pastoralists

Among the different kinds of tribal communities in medieval India, nomadic pastoralists were an important group. Nomads are people who move from place to place in search of food and shelter. Pastoralists are people who move from one pasture to another with their herds of animals. Medieval India had many groups of nomadic pastoralists who lived on animal products, like milk, wool, etc. They moved from place to place and exchanged animal products for goods, like grains, cloth, etc., from people living in different regions. Some were traders, while others reared and sold animals like horses and cattle. The Banjaras were an important group of traders who travelled from place to place in caravans, called tandas, with their goods. They sold their goods in the areas they passed through. Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji used them to transport grains to markets in his cities. Mughal Emperor Jahangir has written about Banjaras carrying grains from different parts of the empire and selling them in towns. They often carried grains for Mughal soldiers fighting battles in other areas.

 

Besides nomads, there were many itinerant groups such as pedlars and entertainers who travelled from place to place practising their occupations to make a living. Pedlars made and sold goods, such as ropes, sacks, etc. Entertainers gave performances in different towns and villages. They often returned to the same places year after year.

 

TRIBAL AND NOMADIC COMMUNITIES IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

During the medieval period, tribal societies existed in almost all parts of the Indian subcontinent. Some of them were quite powerful and had large territories under their control. Some leading tribal families even joined the ruling classes. Central and western parts of India were home to a large number of Bhils, a tribe of hunter-gatherers, many of whom settled down to practise cultivation in the latter half of the 16th century AD.

 

Some even became zamindars. However, some Bhil clans continued to practise their traditional livelihood. In Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra, the Gonds emerged as an important tribe. The Kolis dominated in Gujarat and the hills of Maharashtra and Karnataka. The south was home to large tribes such as Koragas, Vetars, Maravars, etc.

 

In Punjab, the Khokkar tribe rose to prominence between the 13th and 14th centuries AD. Later, the Gakkhars established their supremacy over the region. The regions of Sind and Multan were controlled by Langahs and Arghuns, before the Mughals suppressed them. Another important tribe in the north-west were the Balochis, who comprised several clans. In the western Himalayas, the Gaddis were an important tribe.

 

In the 12th century AD, large chunks of Bihar and Jharkhand were controlled by the Cheros. The Mughals led military campaigns against them in the 16 and 17 centuries AD and managed to establish their authority over the different Chero chiefs. The Mundas and Santhals were other important tribes in the region. They were also found in Orissa and Bengal. The north-east was controlled by several tribes such as the Nagas and the Ahoms.

 

CHANGES IN TRIBAL SOCIETIES

During the medieval period, there was constant interaction between caste-based and tribal societies. They both influenced each other over time and this brought about many changes. Some tribal groups merged into the caste-based society as separate jatis. Others went on to establish separate states and kingdoms. Some like the Gonds and the Ahoms eventually became powerful political forces, which brought them into conflict with rulers of larger empires and kingdoms, such as the Mughals and the Marathas. The assimilation of tribals left a mark on art, language, customs, and religion of caste-based society. Tribal beliefs and rituals were also influenced by contact with other religions. Some like the Gonds also began to worship Hindu Gods and Goddesses.

 

New Terms

• Jatis: Sub-castes which emerged within the varnas in the medieval period.
• Tribes: Societies bound by kinship that did not follow rigid caste structures laid down by Brahmanas, but followed their own rules and customs.
• Clans: Tribal families which claimed descent from a common ancestor.
• Shifting cultivation: Also known as jhoom cultivation; a type of farming technique in which a small area in the forest is cleared for cultivation; after the land loses its fertility, the farm is moved to another patch in the forest.
• Nomads: People who move from place to place in search of food and shelter.
• Pastoralists: People who move from one pasture to another with their herds of animals.
• Nomadic pastoralists: Moved from place to place and exchanged animal products for goods such as grains, cloth, etc. Some were traders, while others reared and sold animals such as horses and cattle.
• Pedlars: Made and sold goods such as ropes, sacks, etc.
• Entertainers: Gave performances in different towns and villages.

MCQs on Social & Tribal Conditions in Medieval India

Q1. In medieval North India (AD 700–1200), which group enjoyed the highest social status due to their knowledge of Sanskrit?

a) Kshatriyas

b) Brahmanas

c) Vaishyas

d) Shudras

Answer: b) Brahmanas

Explanation: Brahmanas were highly respected for their Sanskrit knowledge, composed prashastis, and enjoyed royal patronage.

 

Q2. Which social group rose to prominence as important rulers and warriors in North India between the 8th and 12th centuries?

a) Rajputs

b) Bhils

c) Kayasthas

d) Gonds

Answer: a) Rajputs

Explanation: Rajputs emerged as a dominant Kshatriya clan known for bravery and loyalty, establishing several kingdoms.

 

Q3. Under the varna system, which group was responsible for performing rituals and sacrifices?

a) Kshatriyas

b) Vaishyas

c) Shudras

d) Brahmanas

Answer: d) Brahmanas

Explanation: The Brahmanas were expected to perform rituals, sacrifices, and teach the Vedas, often rewarded with gifts.

 

Q4. Which caste primarily took up trade and commercial activities during the medieval period?

a) Brahmanas

b) Kshatriyas

c) Vaishyas

d) Shudras

Answer: c) Vaishyas

Explanation: Many Vaishyas shifted from agriculture to trade and commerce, gaining importance in economic activities.

 

Q5. The practice where Rajput women burned themselves alive after defeat in battle was called—

a) Purdah

b) Sati

c) Jauhar

d) Infanticide

Answer: c) Jauhar

Explanation: Jauhar was a mass self-immolation by Rajput women to preserve their honour after military defeat.

 

Q6. What was the main difference between sati and jauhar?

a) Sati was voluntary, jauhar forced

b) Sati involved widows, jauhar involved women during war

c) Sati was in South India, jauhar in North India

d) Sati was banned by Mughals, jauhar encouraged

Answer: b) Sati involved widows, jauhar involved women during war

Explanation: Sati was widow immolation on a husband’s pyre, while jauhar was mass immolation during invasions.

 

Q7. In South India under the Cholas, land grants given to Brahmanas were called—

a) Jatis

b) Jagirs

c) Brahmadeya

d) Zabt

Answer: c) Brahmadeya

Explanation: Brahmanas were given land grants known as brahmadeya, ensuring prosperity and social respect.

 

Q8. Which group in South India conducted flourishing trade within India and overseas?

a) Shudras

b) Merchant guilds

c) Kayasthas

d) Pastoralists

Answer: b) Merchant guilds

Explanation: South India had powerful merchant guilds that handled inland and overseas trade, boosting prosperity.

 

Q9. During the Sultanate period, which social custom was introduced by Muslims and later adopted by Hindus?

a) Jauhar

b) Purdah

c) Child marriage

d) Sati

Answer: b) Purdah

Explanation: The practice of purdah (veiling women) came with Muslims and was later adopted by Hindus.

 

Q10. Why did many Hindus convert to Islam during the Sultanate period?

a) To avoid taxes and rigid caste rules

b) To gain military power

c) Because it was compulsory

d) To become Brahmanas

Answer: a) To avoid taxes and rigid caste rules

Explanation: Many converted to Islam as it offered equality and exemption from oppressive taxes like jaziya.

 

Q11. Which class held the most power in society during the Sultanate period?

a) Priests

b) Rural peasants

c) Aristocracy

d) Townspeople

Answer: c) Aristocracy

Explanation: The aristocracy, including sultans, rajas, nobles, and landlords, formed the ruling class.

 

Q12. Which Mughal emperor’s policy of religious tolerance helped Hindus and Muslims come closer?

a) Babur

b) Humayun

c) Akbar

d) Aurangzeb

Answer: c) Akbar

Explanation: Akbar’s sulh-i-kul and liberal policies reduced hostility and encouraged cultural mingling.

 

Q13. The revenue system devised by Akbar, based on crop yields and surveys, was called—

a) Jagir

b) Zabt

c) Zat

d) Zaziya

Answer: b) Zabt

Explanation: Zabt was Akbar’s revenue system, fixing taxes on crops payable in cash.

 

Q14. In Mughal society, which group lived the most luxurious lives?

a) Farmers

b) Nobles and mansabdars

c) Artisans

d) Traders

Answer: b) Nobles and mansabdars

Explanation: Nobles and mansabdars were highly paid and lived extravagantly under Mughal patronage.

 

Q15. Which social custom weakened women’s status during the Mughal period?

a) Education

b) Swayamvara

c) Purdah and sati

d) Property inheritance

Answer: c) Purdah and sati

Explanation: Practices like purdah, sati, polygamy, and infanticide lowered women’s position.

 

Q16. Communities of carpenters, weavers, and potters were recognised as separate—

a) Tribes

b) Varnas

c) Jatis

d) Clans

Answer: c) Jatis

Explanation: Professional groups became separate jatis under Brahmanical recognition in medieval India.

 

Q17. Kayasthas emerged as a new caste mainly consisting of—

a) Warriors

b) Farmers

c) Scribes and secretaries

d) Traders

Answer: c) Scribes and secretaries

Explanation: Kayasthas, drawn from Brahmanas and Shudras, became scribes and administrators.

 

Q18. Tribal societies were mainly bound together by—

a) Money

b) Kinship ties

c) Caste system

d) Religion

Answer: b) Kinship ties

Explanation: Unlike caste-based society, tribal societies were based on kinship and clan bonds.

 

Q19. The farming practice where land is cleared, cultivated, and then abandoned after losing fertility is called—

a) Terrace farming

b) Jhoom cultivation

c) Plantation farming

d) Step cultivation

Answer: b) Jhoom cultivation

Explanation: Also called shifting cultivation, it was common among tribal societies.

 

Q20. Nomadic pastoralists mainly depended on—

a) Agriculture

b) Fishing

c) Animal products

d) Slave trade

Answer: c) Animal products

Explanation: They lived on milk, wool, and traded animal products for grains and cloth.

 

Q21. Which group of traders travelled in caravans called tandas?

a) Kayasthas

b) Banjaras

c) Gonds

d) Bhils

Answer: b) Banjaras

Explanation: Banjaras were nomadic traders carrying goods in tandas, crucial for Mughal supply chains.

 

Q22. Who used Banjaras to transport grains to city markets?

a) Akbar

b) Sher Shah

c) Alauddin Khalji

d) Aurangzeb

Answer: c) Alauddin Khalji

Explanation: Alauddin relied on Banjaras to move grains to urban centres.

 

Q23. Which tribe dominated Gujarat and the hills of Maharashtra?

a) Gonds

b) Kolis

c) Khokhars

d) Ahoms

Answer: b) Kolis

Explanation: Kolis were powerful in Gujarat and Maharashtra’s hill regions.

 

Q24. The Bhils of central and western India were originally—

a) Pastoralists

b) Traders

c) Hunter-gatherers

d) Weavers

Answer: c) Hunter-gatherers

Explanation: Bhils were hunter-gatherers, later some settled as cultivators and zamindars.

 

Q25. Which tribe became important in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh?

a) Ahoms

b) Gonds

c) Khokhars

d) Langahs

Answer: b) Gonds

Explanation: Gonds were a major tribe in central and eastern India, some becoming powerful rulers.

 

Q26. Which tribe rose to prominence in Punjab during the 13th–14th centuries?

a) Ahoms

b) Gakkhars

c) Khokhars

d) Mundas

Answer: c) Khokhars

Explanation: Khokhars dominated Punjab before the rise of the Gakkhars.

 

Q27. Which tribe ruled large parts of Assam and north-east India?

a) Ahoms

b) Gonds

c) Kolis

d) Bhils

Answer: a) Ahoms

Explanation: The Ahoms were a powerful north-east tribe, later establishing kingdoms.

 

Q28. Which group of nomadic entertainers travelled performing in towns and villages?

a) Banjaras

b) Pedlars

c) Gaddis

d) Performers

Answer: d) Performers (Entertainers)

Explanation: Entertainers earned a living through shows in towns and villages, often revisiting places.

 

Q29. Which tribal group lived in the western Himalayas?

a) Balochis

b) Gaddis

c) Langahs

d) Khokhars

Answer: b) Gaddis

Explanation: Gaddis were an important pastoral tribe in the western Himalayas.

 

Q30. Which tribe controlled large areas of Bihar and Jharkhand until the Mughals subdued them?

a) Bhils

b) Cheros

c) Mundas

d) Santhals

Answer: b) Cheros

Explanation: Cheros dominated Bihar-Jharkhand until Mughal campaigns weakened them.

 

Q31. Which two tribes were prominent in Bengal and Orissa?

a) Khokhars and Ahoms

b) Mundas and Santhals

c) Bhils and Kolis

d) Banjaras and Kayasthas

Answer: b) Mundas and Santhals

Explanation: Mundas and Santhals were important tribes in eastern India.

 

Q32. Which group emerged as zamindars during Mughal times from tribal origins?

a) Bhils

b) Ahoms

c) Rajputs

d) Banjaras

Answer: a) Bhils

Explanation: Some Bhils became zamindars while others stuck to traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles.

 

Q33. The assimilation of tribal groups into caste society resulted in—

a) Elimination of caste

b) Rise of new jatis

c) End of kinship

d) Adoption of purdah

Answer: b) Rise of new jatis

Explanation: Tribes merging into caste society became new jatis, diversifying the social order.

 

Q34. Rajputs claimed descent from groups like—

a) Ahoms and Banjaras

b) Huns and Chalukyas

c) Gonds and Mundas

d) Bhils and Cheros

Answer: b) Huns and Chalukyas

Explanation: Rajputs often traced their ancestry to prestigious groups like Huns and Chalukyas.

 

Q35. Which tribe comprised several clans and lived in north-west India?

a) Balochis

b) Ahoms

c) Mundas

d) Bhils

Answer: a) Balochis

Explanation: Balochis lived in the north-west, organised into many clans.

 

Q36. Who were pedlars in tribal societies?

a) Animal herders

b) Traders of small goods

c) Entertainers

d) Priests

Answer: b) Traders of small goods

Explanation: Pedlars made and sold ropes, sacks, and other goods while travelling.

 

Q37. What made tribal societies different from caste-based societies?

a) No agriculture

b) No rulers

c) No Brahmanical caste rules

d) No religion

Answer: c) No Brahmanical caste rules

Explanation: Tribal societies had their own customs and kinship, unlike caste-based Brahmanical rules.

 

Q38. Which practice by tribal communities cleared forests for cultivation?

a) Terrace farming

b) Shifting cultivation

c) Canal irrigation

d) Plantation farming

Answer: b) Shifting cultivation

Explanation: Shifting cultivation (jhoom) cleared and burnt forest patches for farming.

 

Q39. Which Mughal emperor described Banjaras carrying grains in his memoirs?

a) Babur

b) Humayun

c) Jahangir

d) Shah Jahan

Answer: c) Jahangir

Explanation: Jahangir noted Banjaras transporting grains across his empire.

 

Q40. What was the main feature of tribal clans?

a) Based on trade

b) Based on descent from a common ancestor

c) Based on caste hierarchy

d) Based on revenue collection

Answer: b) Based on descent from a common ancestor

Explanation: Each clan traced ancestry to a common ancestor, strengthening kinship bonds.

 

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