Early Cities

WHAT IS A CIVILISATION

A civilization is an organized way of human living, with a common language, administrative methods, social divisions. Features of civilization are planned cities, well-developed trade, and surplus food production.

The earliest civilisations were distinctly progressive and modern as compared to Neolithic settlements Many early civilisations developed around river valleys. This is perhaps because of fertile soils and abundance of water for agriculture in areas drained by rivers. Rivers also served as a convenient means of transport. Such civilisations, which developed around river valleys, are referred to as river valley civilisations.

Indus in the Indian subcontinent; the Chinese civilisation on the banks of the river Hwang Ho; the Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian civilisations which developed between the fertile plains of rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia; and the Egyptian civilisation along the river Nile in Africa. In this chapter, we will study about the Indus Valley Civilisation.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION (4700 years ago in 2700BC)

The Indus Valley Civilisation is believed to have developed about 4700 years ago, i.e, around 2700 BC. II is called so because the cities belonging to this civilisation were located close to the river Indus and its tributaries. After more cities were discovered beyond the Indus Valley, historians began referring to the civilisation as the Indus Civilisation) Nearly 1,000 sites from this civilisation have been discovered so far.

The first indus city to be discovered by archaeologists was in Harappa, Pakistan. Believed to be among the oldest cities in the Indian subcontinent, the site was discovered about 8 decades ago. Mohenjodaro in Sindh, Pakistan, was the next site to be discovered. Later, more cities were discovered in Punjab and Sindh in Pakistan, and Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab in India.

These cities were described as Harappan cities. This is because they all had buildings similar to the site in Harappa and similar objects were discovered from them. For example, archaeologists found red and black pottery, weights made of stone, seals, beads, tools of copper as well as stone blades in most of the cities.

Evidence of well-planned cities, drainage systems, arts and crafts, thriving agriculture, trade, etc., suggest the Harappan cities were centres of a well-developed civilisation.

Important Harappan Sites

1.    Harappa: Located in Pakistan; first site to be discovered.

2.  Mohenjodaro: Located in Larakana district in Sindh, Pakistan. This was perhaps the largest Harappan city.

3.    Chanhudaro: Located south of Mohenjodaro in Sindh, Pakistan.

4.    Lothal: Located in the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat.

5.    Kalibangan: Located in Rajasthan.

6.    Banawali: Located in Haryana.

FEATURES OF HARAPPAN CITIES

Harappan cities were well-planned with an organized network of drainage and streets. The cities were mostly divided into two parts, the citadel and the lower town. The citadel (on fortress) usually stood on raised ground and lay tom the west of the city. The lower town lay in the low- lying part located to the east of the city. The citadel was perhaps occupied by rulers, while the common people lived in the lower town. The citadel and lower town were usually enclosed by walls of baked bricks.

In some Harappan sites, the citadel contains other buildings that were mostly meant for public use bue dinks and granaries. For example the citadel in Mohenjodaro has a tank lined with bricks and coated with plaster. Two sets of steps lead down into the tank that has rooms on all sides. There is even a drain, that may have been used to empty the tank of water. Archaeologists believe the tank was used for bathing and therefore, call it the Great Bath. The citadel also has a granary, or store house, for keeping food grains. Other cities have such buildings, too. The citadels in Harappa and Lothal (Gujarat) have large store houses, while Kalibangan (Rajasthan) and Lothal have altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.

Houses and streets

The main streets of the cities were laid out in a grid-like fashion, dividing the cities into large blocks. The streets cut each other at right angles. Houses made of bricks were usually made on both sides of the streets. They had one or two floors. Each house had a central courtyard with rooms all around it. They usually had a separate area for bathing. Some houses even had wells.

Drainage

The houses, other buildings, and streets were provided with drains. In many places, the drains in the houses and buildings were connected to those on the main streets. These drains were usually covered with bricks or blocks of stone. They were even provided with manholes to make sure they could be cleaned easily. The drains were built in such a way that they sloped gently to allow, easy flow of water. Remains of drains have been found in Banawali in Haryana.

HARAPPAN SCRIPT

A script can be defined as a written text or a system of writing o t of what we know of the Harappan script is through the large number of seals and inscriptions found at Harappan sites. The (Harappan script is a pictographic script, ie., it comprises a set of pictures or symbols each of which represents a word or sound. It is perhaps the earliest form of writing in the Indian subcontinent.

HARAPPAN SOCIETY

As the Harappan script has not yet been (deciphered, not much is known about how the Harappan society was organised. From the citadels it is evident that there was a ruling class or a ruler who governed these cities.

Occupation

Farming and animal rearing were importan activities. The Harappans grew plants like wheat, barley, peas, rice, pulses, sesame, dates, mustard, and even cotton, Toy models show plough, possibly made of wood, was a common tool used by farmers to turn the soil before planting seeds. As the Harappan sites tall in al low rainfall zone, scholars believe the people may have developed some form of irrigation to store and supply water to their fields. Terracotta figures and remains of animals show the Harappans domesticated, a variety of animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, camels, elephants, etc.

The Harappans also hunted wild animals and gathered fruits for food. There is evidence of fishing being a common activity in the region The discovery of a variety of sculptures, tools, ornaments, weapons, etc., points to the existence of groups of skilled crafts persons.

Dress

Figures discovered from the Harappan sites show people wearing ornaments and garments resembling loincloths, or dhotis, and shawls, The discovery of spindle whorls used for spinning thread suggests textiles like cotton and wool were commonly produced. Archaeologists have even found a piece of cotton cloth in Mohenjodaro.

HARAPPAN CRAFTS

Archaeologists have found a variety of objects at the Harappan sites, including pottery, seals, weapons, ornaments, tools, etc. These objects were mostly made of stones, shells, or metals like copper, bronze (made by mixing tin and copper), gold, and silver.

Ornaments

Beads of stone found at many sites are perhaps the most remarkable examples of Harappan craftsmanship. The Harappans mostly made beads from gold or a semi-precious red stone called carnelian. They even bore holes in the centre of the beads so that a thread could be passed through them. The site at Lothal in Gujarat seems to have been an important center for crafts such as bead-making. Besides beads, archaeologists have also found many ornaments of gold and silver like pendants and armbands. Ornaments were probably worn by both men and women.

Tools

The Harappans made blades and weights with stone. Besides stone, copper and bronze were also used to make tools like knives, axes, arrowheads, etc. There is evidence of copper-making units in many Harappan sites. AR

Pottery and sculpture

The Harappans made figurines and sculptures of both humans and animals. Prominent among them are the bronze statue of a 'dancing girl, a young bull, a dancer standing on one leg, and the stone sculpture of a bearded man. Beautiful pottery found in the Harappan sites shows the craft was well-developed in the region. Harappan pottery was either plain or had beautiful black designs.

Toys

A number of terracotta toys like carts, rattles, and animal figures have been discovered at the Harappan sites, indicating toy-making was an important craft.

Seals

Archaeologists have found a large number of seals with carvings from Harappan sites. This implies seal-cutting was an important craft. Harappan seals were made of stone and were usually rectangular in shape. They often had carvings of animals like buffaloes, tigers, and deer on them. These seals were probably used to mark bags containing goods that were sent from one place to another. Among the more striking seals is one depicting a humped bull, and another showing a male wearing a headdress with two horns and surrounded by animals.

Trade

Evidence suggests that the Harappans travelled to distant lands in order to bring many of the raw materials, such as gold, silver, tin, silver, precious stones, etc., that they required to produce their crafts It is possible that they brought copper from Rajasthan or even from as far as West Asia, tin and silver from Afghanistan and Iran, gold from south India, and precious stones from Iran, Afghanistan, Maharashtra and Gujarat (AP number of Harappan seals depict ships and boats. This suggests they had developed these forms of water transport. Objects like toy carts point to the possibility of bullock carts being used for travel on land.

The Harappans are also believed to have had trade links with cities in Mesopotamia. This is supported by the discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamian sites. Archaeologists have discovered a huge tank at Lothal, located close to the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. The tank may have served as a a dockyard for ships and boats carrying goods to or from distant places.

RELIGION

Many Harappan seals depict female figures. This has led historians to believe that they worshipped some sort of a Mother Goddess. Seals depicting the peepul tree point to the possibility that the tree was considered sacred by the Harappans. A male figure shown wearing a horned headdress in some of the seals is believed to have been an early form of Shiva, known as Pasupati.

THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CITIES

The Harappan cities seem to have started declining about 3900 years ago, i.e., about 1900 BC. Evidence shows people stopped living in the cities, especially in Sindh and Punjab in Pakistan, and moved to other areas. In some sites such as Harappa and Mohenjodaro, there is evidence of the drainage system breaking down and new houses being constructed, some even on the streets, Harappan seals, pottery, weights, etc., also vanished all of a sudden.

Historians are not sure what led to the abandonment of these cities. Some believe people moved away after the rivers which supported the cities dried up. There is also evidence of flooding in some areas, which may have led to people moving away from them. Or perhaps, large-scale cutting of trees for use in kilns may have led to 2 environmental changes which may have forced people to move away. However, none of these reasons has been found satisfactory.

Harappan cities had the following characteristics:-They were mostly divided into two parts, the citadel and the lower town. They had well-planned streets and drainage systems. The houses had one or two floors and had central courtyards.

New Terms

River valley civilisations: Civilisations which developed around river valleys.

Harappan cities: Sites discovered in Punjab and Sindh in Pakistan, and Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab, which shared common features with Harappa, Pakistan.

Citadel: A walled area within a Harappan city that stood on raised ground; it had buildings such as tanks and granaries.

Lower town: Walled area in the low-lying part of a Harappan city where common people lived.

Harappan seals: Rectangular pieces of stone, which usually have carvings on them; probably used to mark bags carrying goods from one place to another.

Terracotta: Hard, reddish brown baked clay.

Plough: A farming tool; used to turn soil before planting seeds.

The Harappan civilisation or the Indus Valley Civilisation is believed to have developed about 4700 years ago, i.e, around 2700 BC.

The first Indus city to be discovered by archaeologists was in Harappa, Pakistan. Later, similar sites were discovered elsewhere in Pakistan and India.

Farming and animal rearing were important activities, besides fishing, hunting, and gathering.

Harappans seem to have worshipped Mother Goddess, peepul tree, and an early form of Shiva.

The Harappans were skilled at crafts. They made objects of stones, shelis, or metals.

They travelled within the subcontinent and even to distant lands such as west Asia to bring raw materials. They also had trade links with Mesopotamia.

The Harappan cities seem to have started declining about 3900 years ago. Historians are not sure why.

Diversity and Discrimination

Diversity

"Diversity" means, and how different factors like the history and geography of a place contribute to its uniqueness.

Diversity has both positive and negative outcomes

1. Positive outcomes include mixing of cultures, learning new things, and becoming more tolerant of differences
2.  Negative outcome - discrimination.

In simple terms, discrimination is being partial against a person or a group of people because of their gender, skin colour, religion, nationality, or culture.

Examples  

1. Discrimination can be when children tease their peers who have a darker skin tone, and consider it as ugly.
2. People who cannot speak English fluently are considered less intelligent or less educated by people who can. 

When we form such negative opinions about people just because they are different from us, we are said to be prejudiced against them.

PREJUDICE

Prejudice – “Developing a dislike for people or seeing people as inferior because they are different from each other.”

To tease someone just because he only eats rice and not roti is unreasonable and unjust to that person. So is considering people inferior just because they pronounce certain English words differently than us.

Giving preference to one group over another without any reason is also prejudice.

Besides complexion and language, there are many other things about which we can form a negative opinion:

The clothes people wear, their religious beliefs, their food, the region they belong to, etc.

STEREOTYPES

A stereotype refers to a fixed image of people or a group on the basis of their religion, occupation, sex, wealth, language, etc.

If we say that women are good only at household work, we are creating a stereotype. This is because women are good/capable in many other kinds of work also. Some may work as doctors, teachers, vegetable hawkers, etc., while some may not work at all.Therefore, to say, women can only do housework is being unfair to them. It creates a fixed image in our minds, which is often not true.

When we stereotype people, we begin associating an entire group of people with one image or quality. For example, if we say all tribals are uneducated, poor, dirty, and unintelligent, or all foreigners are beautiful, tall, and rich, we are stereotyping them.

This stereotyping can prevent people from doing things they want to. It can affect what they think about themselves and others. It can even influence the occupations they choose. For example, boys are usually brought up to believe they are superior to girls.  They are even discouraged from choosing occupations like nursing, dancing, etc., because traditionally these occupations were followed by girls.

STEREOTYPES ON THE BASIS OF GENDER

Gender often forms the basis for stereotypes.

Young girls and boys are given different kinds of toys to play with. Girls are usually given dolls, while boys are encouraged to play with tanks and action figures.

Girls are told to choose pink colour while blue for boys.

Girls are expected to be soft and meek, while boys are expected to be tough and strong.

These are not qualities that girls and boys are born with. Rather, these are stereotypes they are expected to fit into gender stereotype

STEREOTYPES ON THE BASIS OF REGION, RACE, OR RELIGION

Sometimes, people form a particular image about others just because they follow a different religion or belong to a different race. Sometimes, people generalize views or judge others based on the region in which they live, the religion they follow or the race they belong to.

For example, people living in the northeastern region of India have been stereotyped for their looks. Their facial looks are little different from people of other states. People often gaze at them and consider them "different" from the rest of the country. This type of stereotype is unfavorable and must be curbed by creating awareness among people.

Sometimes people even associate one particular group of people or community with crime or violence. At other times, people label others belonging to a particular country, race, religion, gender, or economic background as lazy, dumb, or miserly.

Such stereotypes are rather unfair. All communities and countries have people who have such qualities. It does not mean everyone in their community or country is like them.

DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination is said to take place when people act on the basis of their prejudices or stereotypes.

Discrimination can be practised in many ways

·        people may exclude certain people from participating in activities

·        They may prevent them from taking up certain occupations

·        They may bar them from living in some areas

·        They may have problems travelling with them, or sharing food, or drink with them, etc.

REASONS FOR DISCRIMINATION -

DIVERSITY AND INEQUALITY

Both diversity and inequality can be reasons for discrimination.

1. People can be discriminated against because of what makes them diverse.  

Aspects of diversity- such as religion, region, customs, gender, etc., often form the basis for discrimination For example, Indian women have been struggling against discrimination since independence, especially in the field of education. There is a wide gap between girls and boys even today when it comes to education. This is simply because education of girls is not considered important by many people. They feel the role of women is restricted to taking care of their families.

2. People may also be discriminated against because of their economic background or caste People who are poor are often treated badly. They lack the resources to meet their basic needs and often cannot afford to send their children to schools and get good jobs. They often end up being exploited due to their low economic status and are made to accept poor pay for work.

3. Often communities can be excluded from society because of their diversity as well as economic status. For example, tribals have faced a lot of discrimination in Indian society because they followed different social and religious customs, and spoke different languages which were not valued by other people in the society. Also, they were often quite poor. Similarly, there have been many regional and religious groups who have been discriminated against not just because they are different, but also because they are poor.

STRIVING FOR EQUALITY

At the time of independence, many groups were fighting against discrimination and demanding an equal status in society. Poor people, women and peasants were fighting against the inequalities they faced in their lives. They wanted to have equal rights.

Indian leaders were also concerned with the inequalities that existed in our society at that time. They considered equality and respect for diversity as necessary conditions for ensuring unity of our people. So they formulated some rules to ensure all people would be treated equally, in independent India. These provisions have been included in our Constitution.

CONSTITUTION AND EQUALITY

The Constitution bans 'untouchability' in all its forms. The practice of 'untouchability' has been made a punishable offence under the Act of 1955.

Article 15 of the Constitution prohibits discrimination on any ground religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. It is this Article that guarantees no citizen can be prohibited from entering public places. Anyone can go to public places like a temple, playground, market, etc.

The Constitution guarantees all Indian citizens the right to equality. As per the Constitution, all laws apply equally to all Indians irrespective of their religion, economic status, etc. It provides equal rights and opportunities to all Indians.

People are free to choose their occupations irrespective of their gender, religion, etc.

Anyone can apply for a government job. It also lays down equal pay for equal work The Constitution also makes it the government's job to ensure equality to all sections of the society.

It gives the government the power to take decisions to uplift socially and economically weaker or backward sections of society through schemes or policies such as reservation of seats in legislatures, government jobs, or educational institutions.

Article 46 of the Constitution states, 'The states shall promote with special care, the educational and economic interest of the weaker sections of the people, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.'

CONSTITUTION AND DIVERSITY

The Constitution says, India is a secular country where all religions are considered equal. It does not promote any one religion or language.

The Indian Constitution also ensures respect for diversity by giving people the right to practice their religion freely, speak their language, and celebrate their festivals without any fear of discrimination.

It also gives everyone the right to speak freely. These are part of Fundamental Rights, which are guaranteed by the Constitution to all Indians.

INEQUALITY STILL EXISTS

Although the provisions in our Constitution strive for social and economic equality, not all Indians enjoy equal status even today. Many people like Dalits, tribals, economically poor people still face social discrimination.

Discrimination against women also remains an area of concern.

A majority of Indians are still quite poor and made to work for low wages.

Sometimes, women and poor are even paid less than others for doing the same amount of work.

Equality and respect for diversity is key to our unity. Therefore, it is important for people and the government to constantly work towards creating an equal society.

 OUR PAST 

Map and Globe

2.1 SHAPE OF THE EARTH

Today all of us are aware that the shape of the earth is spherical. Do you know that it was thought to be flat like a disk or square in ancient times? People feared venturing out far into the sea lest they might fall off the edge of the earth. This idea about the earth's shape was accepted until Aristotle made the following observations to prove that the shape of the earth was spherical.

The earth's shadow during lunar eclipse is curved and

The ships disappear hull first when they sail over the horizon.

Today it is scientifically established that the earth is an oblate spheroid. It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator due to its rotation, We now know that the planet's equatorial diameter is larger than its polar diameter, contributing to its shape.

2.2 GLOBE

A globe is a three-dimensional model of the Earth. It is usually mounted on a stand at an angle to represent the Earth's tilted axis. It is also not fixed. It can be spun from west to east, just like the Earth rotates on its axis. That is why a globe is called a true model of the Earth. It not only represents the exact shape of the Earth, but also the relative sizes, shapes, distances, and directions of all the continents and oceans.

Globes are of two types - political globes which represent political divisions of the Earth and physical globes which represent physical features of the Earth. A major drawback of using globes is that they do not allow us to see the entire Earth at a single glance. Another drawback is that the physical features of the Earth or a particular region cannot be studied in detail. Globes are also difficult to carry.

MAP 2.3

A map is a two-dimensional representation of the entire or a part of the Earth's surface drawn according to a scale on a flat surface. Maps are drawn from aerial photographs of the Earth. But unlike aerial photographs, maps only show some information. Maps are more useful than globes because they allow us to study specific parts of the Earth, such as continents, countries, states, cities, or villages. They give more detailed information than globes and are easier to carry around.

Maps can be physical, political, or thematic. Physical or relief maps show physical features like mountains, plains, plateaus, water bodies, etc. Political maps show different countries and states, cities, towns, and villages along with their political boundaries. Thematic maps are based on specific themes.  They provide specific information like road or railway networks, soil, distribution of forests, industries, rainfall, etc. They are named according to the information they provide, for example, rainfall maps, road maps, mineral distribution maps, etc.

A collection of maps in a book form is called an atlas. Earlier, maps were drawn by hand on clay tablets, metal plates, animal skins, cloth pieces, etc. Nowadays, they are drawn with computer-aided machines, which are very accurate and precise.

The main drawback of maps is that they do not represent accurate shapes and sizes of continents and oceans. For example, on the world map, the Polar regions of the Earth get stretched much beyond their actual size.

To understand this better, take a rubber ball and trace some patterns on it. Cut the rubber ball in half and place the halves side by side. Try and flatten them out. You will find that the drawings will seem distorted.

2.4 HOW TO READ MAPS

Maps are by far the most important tools for studying the Earth. But one must know how to read them in order to use them effectively. The language of maps comprises the following elements which help us to read them:

TITLE

The title of a map tells us what it is about. It tells us whether the map is a physical map of India, a road map of Chandigarh, a map about annual rainfall in

SCALE

Maps represent large areas of the Earth on a small space. They reduce the entire world or a portion of it to fit into a paper in such a way that they represent the correct distance between places. A particular distance on a map represents a particular distance on the ground. This relation is called the scale of the map.

The scale is always given on a map. There are different ways to represent the scale:-

1.   By a Statement: The scale is described in words. For example, a map may state '10 cm on the map represents 500 m'. This means 10 cm on the map = 500 m on the ground.

By Representative Fraction (RF): The scale is given as a fraction For example, 1cm:10,00,000 km or 1cm/10,00,000 km. This means that 1 cm on map represents 10,00,000 km on ground.

By Linear Scale: The scale is shown as a straight line with uniform divisions, These divisions are used to measure the distance between two points on a map, length of a road, length of a river, etc. This is done with the help of a string. To measure a length or distance, a string is put on the required spots on the map and they are marked on the string with a pen. The string is then put on the linear scale and the distance or length between the two markings is measured.

Every map has its own scale. The scale of a map depends upon the purpose for which map is being made. Depending on the scale, maps can be categorized into two types - large scale maps and small scale maps.

A large scale map represents a small area in great detail. For example, a road map of a city. A large distance on the map represents a small distance on the ground. That means, a distance of 10 cm on the map may represent only 1000 metres on the ground.

A small scale map represents a large area with fewer details. For example, a world map. A small distance on the map represents a very large distance on the ground. So, 10 cm on the map may represent an actual distance of 1000 km.

DIRECTION

There are four cardinal points or main directions namely, north (N), south (S), east (E), and west (W). Between them lie the four intermediate directions namely, northeast (NE), northwest (NW), southeast (SE), and southwest (SW).

On the top right corner of any map, you will find an arrow marked 'N'. This arrow represents the north direction and is known as the north line. This can help you find other directions. The south is opposite to the north direction, the east is to the right, and the west is to the left. We can find out the main directions with the help of an instrument called compass. A compass has a magnetic needle which always points in the north- south direction.

KEY

Maps have a key or index at the bottom left-hand corner. This tells us what the various symbols on the map represent. As it is not possible to show the actual shape and size of features on the map, they are represented through symbols. Symbols comprise letters, shades, colours, pictures, or lines. The use of symbols makes the reading and drawing of a map easier and quicker. Certain symbols are universally accepted, i.e., all maps use these symbols. Such symbols are known as conventional symbols. Like symbols, there is international agreement regarding use of colours. Colours are used to represent major landforms. Green is used for plains, yellow for deserts, brown for highlands, and blue for oceans and seas.

2.5 SKETCH AND PLAN

Sketch- A sketch is a rough map drawn without a scale. It does not give accurate information. It only conveys a rough idea of the place Directions and distances are shown in sketches but no scale is used. Therefore, such maps do not give us much idea about the distance between places or their location. Sketches are often drawn to tell the routes or locations of particular places in a given locality.

Plan -A plan is s a large scale map of a small area. It is often drawn to show the layout of a building room, shopping complex, class room, etc. It gives all the minor details of the area and is very accurate) It is often used by architects who design houses and buildings.

Diversity