The Age of Harshavardhana
After
the end of the Gupta Empire, several A small kingdoms emerged across the
subcontinent. Prominent among them were the Vardhanas of Thanesar and the
Maukbaris of Kannauj. In the 7th century AD, a Vardhana king called
Harshavardhana managed to establish a powerful empire in the north after taking
over the thrones of both Thanesar and Kannauj.
THE AGE OF HARSHAVARDHANA (AD 606-AD 647)
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Xuan Zang's accounts
Chinese
traveller Xuan Zang came to India in AD 630 to study in Nalanda (Bihar), which
was an important seat of Buddhist learning at the time. He also wanted to
collect Buddhist texts from India. During his travels in India, Xuan Zang spent
many years in Harsha's court. He returned to China in AD 643. After reaching
home, he wrote a book called Si-yu-ki, or Records of the Western World, which
is a valuable source of information about Harsha and his times.
HOW HARSHAVARDHANA BECAME KING
Harshacharita
provides information about Harsha's ancestors and also says how he became king.
Harshavardhana's father, Prabhakarvardhana, was the first important king of the
Vardhana dynasty which ruled over Thanesar, near Kurukshetra. After
Prabhakarvardhana's death, Harsha's elder brother Rajyavardhana took over the
throne but was soon killed in fighting. With the death of his elder brother,
16-year-old Harshavardhana became king of Thanesar.
|
Shashanka The Ruler of Bengal Shashanka, the ruler of Bengal, was a
source of much trouble to Harsha till his death in AD 619. He is said to have
cut down the Bodhi tree under which Buddha was believed to have achieved
enlightenment. |
HARSHA'S CONQUESTS
Harshavardhana
took over Kannauj after its king, who was also his brother-in-law, was killed
by the ruler of Bengal. From Kannauj, which now served as his capital, Harsha
launched attacks on Bengal and Magadha and managed to capture them. He even led
a military expedition into the Deccan, but his advance was checked by the
Chalukyas. Harsha did not seize all the territories he conquered. Instead,
kings of conquered territories were allowed to rule their kingdoms as long as
they accepted his authority. They were required to pay him tributes and even
provide troops, when required.
PATRON OF LEARNING
Harshavardhana
was a learned man. Some historians credit him with the composition of three
Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and Nagananda. According to Xuan Zang,
he patronised learned men. Many noted scholars such as Jayasena, Dandin, and
Kumaradasa emerged during his rule. He also gave large grants to the university
in Nalanda, an important seat of learning at the time.
University of Nalanda
Nalanda
University became an international seat of learning during Harsha's rule, with
nearly 10,000 scholars from different parts of the world enrolled as its
students. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Though the university was
primarily a Buddhist seat of learning, the subjects taught ranged from
brahmanical and Buddhist literature to philosophy, logic, grammar, medicine,
astronomy, metaphysics, and art and craft.
Besides
Harsha, many other kings gave grants to support the university.
|
Description of Nalanda University The Nalanda University is considered an
architectural masterpiece. It had eight separate compounds and ten temples,
along with many meditation halls and classrooms. Its grounds boasted many
lakes and parks. A single gate provided entrance to the university. .webp) |
ADMINISTRATION
According
to Xuan Zang's accounts and Harsha's own inscriptions, Harshavardhana
controlled an efficient administration. The whole empire was divided into
provinces known as deshas. These were governed by kumaramatya. Deshas were
further divided into districts known as pradeshas, which were governed by
ayuktas. The administration was decentralised, i.e., local officials took
administrative decisions independently.
Revenue
was collected from land as agriculture was the prime occupation. The revenue
was fixed at one-sixth of the produce. Traders and merchants also paid taxes.
Harsha divided the revenue collected into four parts-one part was earmarked for
him, the others were meant for scholars, public services, and religious
purposes.
Army
Banabhatta
has described Harsha's army as a large and well-organised one, with elephants,
camels, and chariots. Villages through which his army passed were expected to
provide items of food for the soldiers and fodder for animals. Harsha had
military leaders called samantas under him, who pledged loyalty to him and
controlled different territories. The samantas usually provided him with
soldiers, horses, and weapons. They were not paid regular salaries, but given
land grants. They collected revenue from the lands given to them and used it to
maintain their armies.
SOCIETY
According
to Xuan Zang's accounts, farming was the primary source of livelihood for
people in villages. People in towns were occupied in trade and craft. People
followed a rigid caste structure. Any contact with 'untouchables' was
considered polluting. People were mostly vegetarians and did not consume onion
or garlic.
RELIGION
Initially
a Shaiva (worshipper of Shiva), Harshavardhana converted to Buddhism at a later
stage in his life. He followed the Mahayana sect of Buddhism and took several
steps to popularise the religion. He gave grants to monks and also built many
monasteries and carried out repairs on old ones.
Harsha's Assemblies: Harshavardhana was
a tolerant ruler. This is evident by the religious assemblies held during his
rule. In AD 641, Harshavardhana held a great assembly at Kannauj to publicise
the doctrines of the Mahayana sect and to honour Xuan Zang. Many royals and
several priests from different sects and religions attended the assembly.
Harsha also held regular assemblies every five years in Prayag which were
attended by people from different religions.
Xuan
Zang has given an account of one such assembly in Prayag. According to Xuan
Zang, Harsha began the assembly by worshipping deities, such as Buddha, Shiva,
and Surya, then he gave gifts and offerings to monks and priests, and later
alms to the needy. He is said to have even given away his personal items at the
assembly, which lasted for many days.
END OF THE HARSHA ERA
Harshavardhana
died in AD 647. In the absence of an heir to the throne, one of his ministers,
Arjuna, proclaimed himself king. But Arjuna's rule did not last long. Soon, the
vast empire set up by Harsha disintegrated as several smaller kingdoms asserted
their independence.
THE KINGDOMS IN THE SOUTH
After
the fall of the Satavahanas, a number of small kingdoms emerged in the Deccan.
Among them the Vakatakas rose into prominence, but for a short while. They were
followed by the Chalukyas. The fall of the Satavahanas also led to the Pallavas
emerging as an important power in the south.
THE CHALUKYAS
The Chalukyas set up their capital in Aihole in Karnataka. Their control extended over areas falling between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra in Raichur. The most famous Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin-II, who ruled between AD 609 and AD 642. We know about Pulakeshin-II through a prashasti composed by a poet in his court, Ravikirti. The prashasti talks about his military exploits along the west and east coasts of India after taking over the kingdom from his uncle. More famously, he is said to have checked the advance of Harshavardhana into the Deccan.
Under
the Chalukyas, Aihole became an important centre of trade as well as worship.
Evidence suggests the Chalukyas conducted trade with Iran, Arabia, and South
Asian countries. Pulakeshin-II is even said to have sent an ambassador to the
court of Persian king Khusrao-II. The accounts of Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang,
who visited Pulakeshin-II's court, tell us about the fertile soil and
predominance of agriculture.
The
Chalukyan kings were patrons of art and architecture. This is evident from the
beautiful temples dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva that were built by them in
Badami, Pattadakal, and Aihole. Several Buddhist monasteries also developed
during this period.
The
Chalukyas and the Pallavas were involved in constant conflict and launched many
attacks on each other's capitals, Mural at Badami temple which were quite
prosperous. In fact, Pulakeshin- II is said to have attacked the Pallavas
during Mahendravarman's rule and defeated them. The Chalukyans were replaced by
the Rashtrakutas in the 8th century AD after their last king, Kirtivarman-II,
was defeated by a Rashtrakuta king called Dantidurga.
THE PALLAVAS
The
Pallavas set up their capital in Kanchipuram. Their control extended to regions
areas around their capital and as far as the Kaveri delta. Some important
Pallava rulers include Mahendravarman-I and Narasimhavarman-I.
Narsimhavarman-I, who rose to the throne in the 7th century AD, is said to have
led successful naval expeditions to Sri Lanka. However, such conflicts
ultimately weakened the Pallavas, who were defeated by the Cholas in the 9th
century.
People and religion
Xuan
Zang is said to have visited the Pallava kingdom during Narsimhavarman-I's
rule. According to Xuan Zang's accounts, cultivation was the primary occupation
of the people. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism were important religions. The
worship of Shiva became popular due to the efforts of many Tamil saints like
Appar. Even the Pallava king Mahendravarman-I, who was a Jain, later began
worshipping Shiva. Although the Pallava kings after Mahendravarman-I followed
the new faith, they were quite tolerant of other religions.
Art and architecture
The
Pallavas encouraged art and architecture. They evolved a new style of temple
construction wherein a temple was carved from a single piece of stone. Examples
of such construction include the famous rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram and
Kanchipuram.
Southern architecture
As
the power of the Chalukyans grew, they drove south into the Pallava kingdom.
Pulakeshin II, and later Vikramaditya II, are said to have entered the temple
city of Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu), where they were so taken by the beauty of the
Kailashnatha Temple built by the Pallavas that they made a replica of it back
home (Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal). When the Rastrakutas captured the
Chalukyan capital, they were struck by the beauty of the Virupaksha temple and
used it as a model to build the famous rock-cut temple of Kailash at Ellora.
ADMINISTRATION IN THE SOUTHERN KINGDOMS
The
administration of the kingdoms was decentralised. The empire was divided into
provinces (bhuktis), districts (vaishyas), and villages. The village remained
the most important unit of revenue and administration. Officials were appointed
to govern each level of administration. Besides, the kings also had ministers
who helped them govern the entire empire. According to inscriptions dating back
to the Pallava rule, there were many local assemblies which looked after administrative
tasks, such as irrigation, agriculture, construction of roads and temples, etc.
The assemblies usually comprised sub- committees which looked after specific
tasks. Rich landlords and merchants perhaps enjoyed great power in these
assemblies. Some assemblies mentioned in the inscriptions are:
Sabha: This was an assembly of Brahmana landlords.
Ur: This was an assembly of non-brahmana landlords.
Nagaram: This was an association of merchants.
Harshavardhana
established his rule in the north in the 7th century AD. The main source of
information about Harshavardhana is his biography, Harshacharita, written by
his court poet Banabhatta and accounts of Chinese traveller Xuan Zang. The
Pallavas and the Chalukyas emerged as important dynasties in the south sometime
during the 6th century AD. They were involved in constant conflicts with each
other. Pulakeshin-II was an important Chalukya king. We know about him through
a prashasti composed by a poet in his court, Ravikirti. In the southern
kingdoms, there were many local assemblies which looked after administrative
tasks such as irrigation, agriculture, construction of roads and temples, etc.
Exercise
1.Q.
Who wrote Harshacharita, the biography of King Harshavardhana?
A)
Kalidasa
B)
Banabhatta
C)
Xuan Zang
D)
Sudraka
Answer: B
Explanation: Harshacharita, a biography of King Harshavardhana,
was written by Banabhatta, a poet in Harsha's court.
2.
Q. Which Chinese traveler visited India during Harsha's reign and documented
his experiences in a work called Si-yu-ki?
A)
Fa Hien
B)
Xuan Zang
C)
Marco Polo
D)
Megasthenes
Answer: B
Explanation: Xuan Zang, a Chinese traveler, visited India during
Harsha's reign. He documented his experiences in Si-yu-ki, or Records of the
Western World.
3.
Q. What important learning center did Xuan Zang visit during his travels in
India?
A)
Takshashila
B)
Nalanda
C)
Kashi
D)
Pataliputra
Answer: B
Explanation: Xuan Zang visited Nalanda, an important Buddhist
learning center in Bihar, to study and collect Buddhist texts.
4.
Q. Harshavardhana belonged to which dynasty?
A)
Gupta
B)
Vardhana
C)
Maurya
D)
Chola
Answer: B
Explanation: Harshavardhana was a ruler of the Vardhana dynasty,
which ruled over Thanesar near Kurukshetra.
5.
Q. Who was Harshavardhana’s elder brother, who ruled before him and was killed
in battle?
A)
Prabhakarvardhana
B)
Rajyavardhana
C)
Chandragupta
D)
Kumaragupta
Answer: B
Explanation: Harsha’s elder brother, Rajyavardhana, ruled before
him and was killed in a battle, leading Harsha to ascend the throne.
6.
Q. Which region did Harsha originally rule before expanding his empire?
A)
Kannauj
B)
Pataliputra
C)
Thanesar
D)
Magadha
Answer: C
Explanation: Harsha initially ruled over Thanesar, near
Kurukshetra, before expanding his empire.
7.
Q. What is another name for the period of Harshavardhana’s reign?
A)
The Golden Age
B)
The Age of Harshavardhana
C)
The Age of the Mauryas
D)
The Age of Gupta Successors
Answer: B
Explanation: The period of Harshavardhana’s rule is known as the
Age of Harshavardhana, as he was one of the most significant kings of the
post-Gupta era.
8.
Q. Shashanka, the ruler of which region, was a source of trouble for
Harshavardhana until his death in AD 619?
A)
Magadha
B)
Bengal
C)
Deccan
D)
Kannauj
Answer: B
Explanation: Shashanka was the ruler of Bengal and opposed
Harshavardhana until his death in AD 619.
9.
Q. Which sacred tree did Shashanka allegedly cut down?
A)
The Bodhi tree
B)
The Peepal tree
C)
The Ashoka tree
D)
The Banyan tree
Answer: A
Explanation: Shashanka is said to have cut down the Bodhi tree
under which Buddha achieved enlightenment.
10.
Q. Harsha established which city as his capital after taking it over following
the death of its king?
A)
Pataliputra
B)
Magadha
C)
Kannauj
D)
Thanesar
Answer: C
Explanation: Harsha made Kannauj his capital after its king, his
brother-in-law, was killed by Shashanka.
11.
Q. Harshavardhana’s southern expansion was stopped by which dynasty?
A)
Cholas
B)
Pandyas
C)
Chalukyas
D)
Pallavas
Answer: C
Explanation: The Chalukyas checked Harsha's advance into the
Deccan, preventing his further expansion southwards.
12.
Q. What was the main condition for conquered kings to continue ruling their
territories under Harsha?
A)
Paying heavy taxes
B)
Becoming Buddhist
C)
Accepting Harsha's authority and paying tributes
D)
Marrying into Harsha’s family
Answer: C
Explanation: Conquered kings could retain control over their
territories as long as they accepted Harsha’s authority and paid tributes.
13.
Q. Harshavardhana is credited with writing which of the following Sanskrit
plays?
A)
Mrichchhakatika
B)
Mudrarakshasa
C)
Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and Nagananda
D)
Abhijnana Shakuntalam
Answer: C
Explanation: Harsha is credited with the composition of the
Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and Nagananda.
14.
Q. During Harsha's rule, which university became an international seat of
learning?
A)
Takshashila
B)
Nalanda
C)
Ujjain
D)
Kashi
Answer: B
Explanation: Nalanda University, located in Bihar, became a
prominent international center of learning during Harsha’s rule.
15.
Q. What was the name of the extensive library at Nalanda University?
A)
Dharma Shala
B)
Vidya Bhavan
C)
Dharma Gunj
D)
Bodhi Mandir
Answer: C
Explanation: The library at Nalanda University was called Dharma
Gunj, meaning "Mountain of Truth."
16.
Q. Which of the following buildings at Nalanda University housed the library’s
vast collection of texts?
A)
Vihara Griha
B)
Dharma Gunj
C)
Ratnasagara, Ratnodadhi, and Ratnarañjaka
D)
Shikhara Mandapa
Answer: C
Explanation: The library at Nalanda was spread over three
nine-storey buildings known as Ratnasagara (sea of jewels), Ratnodadhi (ocean
of jewels), and Ratnarañjaka (delighter of jewels).
17.
Q. Which foreign traveler documented his experiences at Nalanda and Harsha’s
court in his work Si-yu-ki?
A)
Fa Hien
B)
Ibn Battuta
C)
Xuan Zang
D)
Al-Biruni
Answer: C
Explanation: Chinese traveler Xuan Zang documented his
experiences in Si-yu-ki, which provides valuable information about Harsha and
Nalanda University.
18.
Q. What term was used for the provinces in Harsha's empire?
A)
Janapadas
B)
Deshas
C)
Mandalas
D)
Pradeshas
Answer: B
Explanation: In Harsha’s administration, provinces were called
deshas and were governed by officials known as kumaramatyas.
19.
Q. What was the main source of revenue in Harsha’s empire?
A)
Trade taxes
B)
Land revenue from agriculture
C)
Tribute from samantas
D)
Royal donations
Answer: B
Explanation: Agriculture was the prime occupation, and land
revenue was the main source, fixed at one-sixth of the produce.
20.
Q. Into how many parts was the revenue collected by Harsha divided?
A)
Two
B)
Three
C)
Four
D)
Five
Answer: C
Explanation: Harsha divided the revenue into four parts—one for
himself, and the remaining for scholars, public services, and religious
purposes.
21.
Q. What term was used for Harsha’s military leaders who were responsible for
providing soldiers and resources?
A)
Kumaramatyas
B)
Ayuktas
C)
Samantas
D)
Mantris
Answer: C
Explanation: The samantas were military leaders who controlled
territories and pledged loyalty to Harsha, providing soldiers, horses, and
weapons.
22.
Q. Harsha converted to which religion later in life?
A)
Jainism
B)
Shaivism
C)
Vaishnavism
D)
Buddhism
Answer: D
Explanation: Initially a Shaiva, Harsha later converted to
Buddhism, specifically the Mahayana sect, and took steps to promote it.
23.
Q. Which Chinese traveler attended an assembly held by Harsha in AD 641?
A)
Fa Hien
B)
Al-Biruni
C)
Xuan Zang
D)
Marco Polo
Answer: C
Explanation: The Chinese traveler Xuan Zang attended the Kannauj
assembly held by Harsha to publicize Mahayana Buddhism.
24.
Q. Harsha held assemblies every five years in which city?
A)
Pataliputra
B)
Nalanda
C)
Kannauj
D)
Prayag
Answer: D
Explanation: Harsha held regular religious assemblies every five
years in Prayag, where he worshipped multiple deities and distributed alms.
25.
Q. What religious sect did Harsha promote through the assembly at Kannauj?
A)
Theravada Buddhism
B)
Shaivism
C)
Mahayana Buddhism
D)
Vaishnavism
Answer: C
Explanation: Harsha promoted Mahayana Buddhism through the
assembly at Kannauj, attended by royals and priests from various sects.
26.
Q. Which of the following actions did Harsha reportedly perform at the Prayag
assembly as described by Xuan Zang?
A)
Declared war on neighboring kingdoms
B)
Gave away his personal items to the needy
C)
Converted to Jainism
D)
Abolished the caste system
Answer: B
Explanation: Xuan Zang reported that Harsha distributed alms and
even gave away his personal belongings to the needy at the Prayag assembly.
27.
Q. What happened to Harsha's empire after his death in AD 647?
A)
It expanded under his successor
B)
It became part of the Chalukya Empire
C)
It disintegrated into smaller kingdoms
D)
It was taken over by the Gupta Empire
Answer: C
Explanation: After Harsha’s death, his empire disintegrated as
smaller kingdoms asserted their independence due to the lack of an heir.
28.
Q. Where did the Chalukyas establish their capital?
A)
Kanchipuram
B)
Pattadakal
C)
Aihole
D)
Ellora
Answer: C
Explanation: The Chalukyas set up their capital in Aihole,
Karnataka, and it became an important center of trade and worship.
29.
Q. Who was the most famous Chalukya ruler known for his military exploits and
for checking Harshavardhana's advance into the Deccan?
A)
Kirtivarman-II
B)
Pulakeshin-II
C)
Mahendravarman-I
D)
Vikramaditya-II
Answer: B
Explanation: Pulakeshin-II, a famous Chalukya ruler, is known
for his military prowess and for halting Harshavardhana’s advance into the
Deccan.
30.
Q. Which Persian king did Pulakeshin-II reportedly send an ambassador to?
A)
Cyrus the Great
B)
Darius III
C)
Khusrao-II
D)
Xerxes I
Answer: C
Explanation: Pulakeshin-II is said to have sent an ambassador to
the Persian king Khusrao-II, indicating the Chalukyas’ diplomatic reach.
31.
Q. Which Pallava king is credited with leading successful naval expeditions to
Sri Lanka?
A)
Narasimhavarman-I
B)
Mahendravarman-I
C)
Dantidurga
D)
Rajendra Chola
Answer: A
Explanation: Narasimhavarman-I, a Pallava king, is known for his
naval expeditions to Sri Lanka during his reign.
32.
Q. Which architectural style was pioneered by the Pallavas?
A)
Brick-based temples
B)
Rock-cut temples from a single stone
C)
Wooden pagodas
D)
Dome-shaped stupas
Answer: B
Explanation: The Pallavas pioneered the construction of rock-cut
temples from single stones, exemplified by the temples at Mahabalipuram and
Kanchipuram.
33.
Q. The assembly of Brahmana landlords in the Pallava administration was known
as?
A)
Sabha
B)
Ur
C)
Nagaram
D)
Bhukti
Answer: A
Explanation: Sabha was an assembly of Brahmana landlords,
indicating the decentralized administrative structure in the Pallava kingdom.
34.
Q. What significant temple in Kanchipuram inspired the Chalukyas to create a
replica in Pattadakal?
A)
Kailashnatha Temple
B)
Brihadeshwara Temple
C)
Shore Temple
D)
Meenakshi Temple
Answer: A
Explanation: The Kailashnatha Temple in Kanchipuram, built by
the Pallavas, impressed the Chalukyas, who created a replica, the Virupaksha
Temple, in Pattadakal.
35.
Q. Who defeated the last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman-II, leading to the rise of
the Rashtrakutas?
A)
Dantidurga
B)
Rajaraja Chola
C)
Pulakeshin-II
D)
Mahendravarman-I
Answer: A
Explanation: Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta king, defeated the last
Chalukya king, Kirtivarman-II, marking the decline of the Chalukyas and rise of
the Rashtrakutas.
36.
Q. According to Xuan Zang's accounts, which religions were prominent in the
Pallava kingdom during Narasimhavarman-I's rule?
A)
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism
B)
Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism
C)
Islam, Hinduism, and Sikhism
D)
Judaism, Buddhism, and Jainism
Answer: A
Explanation: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism were prominent in
the Pallava kingdom, as noted by Xuan Zang during Narasimhavarman-I’s rule.
37.
Q. Which of the following assemblies in Pallava administration was associated
with merchants?
A)
Sabha
B)
Ur
C)
Nagaram
D)
Bhukti
Answer: C
Explanation: Nagaram was an assembly of merchants, part of the decentralized administrative system in the Palla
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