Early Cities

WHAT IS A CIVILISATION

A civilization is an organized way of human living, with a common language, administrative methods, social divisions. Features of civilization are planned cities, well-developed trade, and surplus food production.

The earliest civilisations were distinctly progressive and modern as compared to Neolithic settlements Many early civilisations developed around river valleys. This is perhaps because of fertile soils and abundance of water for agriculture in areas drained by rivers. Rivers also served as a convenient means of transport. Such civilisations, which developed around river valleys, are referred to as river valley civilisations.

Indus in the Indian subcontinent; the Chinese civilisation on the banks of the river Hwang Ho; the Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian civilisations which developed between the fertile plains of rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia; and the Egyptian civilisation along the river Nile in Africa. In this chapter, we will study about the Indus Valley Civilisation.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION (4700 years ago in 2700BC)

The Indus Valley Civilisation is believed to have developed about 4700 years ago, i.e, around 2700 BC. II is called so because the cities belonging to this civilisation were located close to the river Indus and its tributaries. After more cities were discovered beyond the Indus Valley, historians began referring to the civilisation as the Indus Civilisation) Nearly 1,000 sites from this civilisation have been discovered so far.

The first indus city to be discovered by archaeologists was in Harappa, Pakistan. Believed to be among the oldest cities in the Indian subcontinent, the site was discovered about 8 decades ago. Mohenjodaro in Sindh, Pakistan, was the next site to be discovered. Later, more cities were discovered in Punjab and Sindh in Pakistan, and Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab in India.

These cities were described as Harappan cities. This is because they all had buildings similar to the site in Harappa and similar objects were discovered from them. For example, archaeologists found red and black pottery, weights made of stone, seals, beads, tools of copper as well as stone blades in most of the cities.

Evidence of well-planned cities, drainage systems, arts and crafts, thriving agriculture, trade, etc., suggest the Harappan cities were centres of a well-developed civilisation.

Important Harappan Sites

1.    Harappa: Located in Pakistan; first site to be discovered.

2.  Mohenjodaro: Located in Larakana district in Sindh, Pakistan. This was perhaps the largest Harappan city.

3.    Chanhudaro: Located south of Mohenjodaro in Sindh, Pakistan.

4.    Lothal: Located in the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat.

5.    Kalibangan: Located in Rajasthan.

6.    Banawali: Located in Haryana.

FEATURES OF HARAPPAN CITIES

Harappan cities were well-planned with an organized network of drainage and streets. The cities were mostly divided into two parts, the citadel and the lower town. The citadel (on fortress) usually stood on raised ground and lay tom the west of the city. The lower town lay in the low- lying part located to the east of the city. The citadel was perhaps occupied by rulers, while the common people lived in the lower town. The citadel and lower town were usually enclosed by walls of baked bricks.

In some Harappan sites, the citadel contains other buildings that were mostly meant for public use bue dinks and granaries. For example the citadel in Mohenjodaro has a tank lined with bricks and coated with plaster. Two sets of steps lead down into the tank that has rooms on all sides. There is even a drain, that may have been used to empty the tank of water. Archaeologists believe the tank was used for bathing and therefore, call it the Great Bath. The citadel also has a granary, or store house, for keeping food grains. Other cities have such buildings, too. The citadels in Harappa and Lothal (Gujarat) have large store houses, while Kalibangan (Rajasthan) and Lothal have altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.

Houses and streets

The main streets of the cities were laid out in a grid-like fashion, dividing the cities into large blocks. The streets cut each other at right angles. Houses made of bricks were usually made on both sides of the streets. They had one or two floors. Each house had a central courtyard with rooms all around it. They usually had a separate area for bathing. Some houses even had wells.

Drainage

The houses, other buildings, and streets were provided with drains. In many places, the drains in the houses and buildings were connected to those on the main streets. These drains were usually covered with bricks or blocks of stone. They were even provided with manholes to make sure they could be cleaned easily. The drains were built in such a way that they sloped gently to allow, easy flow of water. Remains of drains have been found in Banawali in Haryana.

HARAPPAN SCRIPT

A script can be defined as a written text or a system of writing o t of what we know of the Harappan script is through the large number of seals and inscriptions found at Harappan sites. The (Harappan script is a pictographic script, ie., it comprises a set of pictures or symbols each of which represents a word or sound. It is perhaps the earliest form of writing in the Indian subcontinent.

HARAPPAN SOCIETY

As the Harappan script has not yet been (deciphered, not much is known about how the Harappan society was organised. From the citadels it is evident that there was a ruling class or a ruler who governed these cities.

Occupation

Farming and animal rearing were importan activities. The Harappans grew plants like wheat, barley, peas, rice, pulses, sesame, dates, mustard, and even cotton, Toy models show plough, possibly made of wood, was a common tool used by farmers to turn the soil before planting seeds. As the Harappan sites tall in al low rainfall zone, scholars believe the people may have developed some form of irrigation to store and supply water to their fields. Terracotta figures and remains of animals show the Harappans domesticated, a variety of animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, camels, elephants, etc.

The Harappans also hunted wild animals and gathered fruits for food. There is evidence of fishing being a common activity in the region The discovery of a variety of sculptures, tools, ornaments, weapons, etc., points to the existence of groups of skilled crafts persons.

Dress

Figures discovered from the Harappan sites show people wearing ornaments and garments resembling loincloths, or dhotis, and shawls, The discovery of spindle whorls used for spinning thread suggests textiles like cotton and wool were commonly produced. Archaeologists have even found a piece of cotton cloth in Mohenjodaro.

HARAPPAN CRAFTS

Archaeologists have found a variety of objects at the Harappan sites, including pottery, seals, weapons, ornaments, tools, etc. These objects were mostly made of stones, shells, or metals like copper, bronze (made by mixing tin and copper), gold, and silver.

Ornaments

Beads of stone found at many sites are perhaps the most remarkable examples of Harappan craftsmanship. The Harappans mostly made beads from gold or a semi-precious red stone called carnelian. They even bore holes in the centre of the beads so that a thread could be passed through them. The site at Lothal in Gujarat seems to have been an important center for crafts such as bead-making. Besides beads, archaeologists have also found many ornaments of gold and silver like pendants and armbands. Ornaments were probably worn by both men and women.

Tools

The Harappans made blades and weights with stone. Besides stone, copper and bronze were also used to make tools like knives, axes, arrowheads, etc. There is evidence of copper-making units in many Harappan sites. AR

Pottery and sculpture

The Harappans made figurines and sculptures of both humans and animals. Prominent among them are the bronze statue of a 'dancing girl, a young bull, a dancer standing on one leg, and the stone sculpture of a bearded man. Beautiful pottery found in the Harappan sites shows the craft was well-developed in the region. Harappan pottery was either plain or had beautiful black designs.

Toys

A number of terracotta toys like carts, rattles, and animal figures have been discovered at the Harappan sites, indicating toy-making was an important craft.

Seals

Archaeologists have found a large number of seals with carvings from Harappan sites. This implies seal-cutting was an important craft. Harappan seals were made of stone and were usually rectangular in shape. They often had carvings of animals like buffaloes, tigers, and deer on them. These seals were probably used to mark bags containing goods that were sent from one place to another. Among the more striking seals is one depicting a humped bull, and another showing a male wearing a headdress with two horns and surrounded by animals.

Trade

Evidence suggests that the Harappans travelled to distant lands in order to bring many of the raw materials, such as gold, silver, tin, silver, precious stones, etc., that they required to produce their crafts It is possible that they brought copper from Rajasthan or even from as far as West Asia, tin and silver from Afghanistan and Iran, gold from south India, and precious stones from Iran, Afghanistan, Maharashtra and Gujarat (AP number of Harappan seals depict ships and boats. This suggests they had developed these forms of water transport. Objects like toy carts point to the possibility of bullock carts being used for travel on land.

The Harappans are also believed to have had trade links with cities in Mesopotamia. This is supported by the discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamian sites. Archaeologists have discovered a huge tank at Lothal, located close to the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. The tank may have served as a a dockyard for ships and boats carrying goods to or from distant places.

RELIGION

Many Harappan seals depict female figures. This has led historians to believe that they worshipped some sort of a Mother Goddess. Seals depicting the peepul tree point to the possibility that the tree was considered sacred by the Harappans. A male figure shown wearing a horned headdress in some of the seals is believed to have been an early form of Shiva, known as Pasupati.

THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CITIES

The Harappan cities seem to have started declining about 3900 years ago, i.e., about 1900 BC. Evidence shows people stopped living in the cities, especially in Sindh and Punjab in Pakistan, and moved to other areas. In some sites such as Harappa and Mohenjodaro, there is evidence of the drainage system breaking down and new houses being constructed, some even on the streets, Harappan seals, pottery, weights, etc., also vanished all of a sudden.

Historians are not sure what led to the abandonment of these cities. Some believe people moved away after the rivers which supported the cities dried up. There is also evidence of flooding in some areas, which may have led to people moving away from them. Or perhaps, large-scale cutting of trees for use in kilns may have led to 2 environmental changes which may have forced people to move away. However, none of these reasons has been found satisfactory.

Harappan cities had the following characteristics:-They were mostly divided into two parts, the citadel and the lower town. They had well-planned streets and drainage systems. The houses had one or two floors and had central courtyards.

New Terms

River valley civilisations: Civilisations which developed around river valleys.

Harappan cities: Sites discovered in Punjab and Sindh in Pakistan, and Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab, which shared common features with Harappa, Pakistan.

Citadel: A walled area within a Harappan city that stood on raised ground; it had buildings such as tanks and granaries.

Lower town: Walled area in the low-lying part of a Harappan city where common people lived.

Harappan seals: Rectangular pieces of stone, which usually have carvings on them; probably used to mark bags carrying goods from one place to another.

Terracotta: Hard, reddish brown baked clay.

Plough: A farming tool; used to turn soil before planting seeds.

The Harappan civilisation or the Indus Valley Civilisation is believed to have developed about 4700 years ago, i.e, around 2700 BC.

The first Indus city to be discovered by archaeologists was in Harappa, Pakistan. Later, similar sites were discovered elsewhere in Pakistan and India.

Farming and animal rearing were important activities, besides fishing, hunting, and gathering.

Harappans seem to have worshipped Mother Goddess, peepul tree, and an early form of Shiva.

The Harappans were skilled at crafts. They made objects of stones, shelis, or metals.

They travelled within the subcontinent and even to distant lands such as west Asia to bring raw materials. They also had trade links with Mesopotamia.

The Harappan cities seem to have started declining about 3900 years ago. Historians are not sure why.

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